Summary: tool for attaining certainty. The distinction between mind and body is the key to his philosophy, leading to a revolution in Western thought. Galileo and Newton further reinforced the primacy of mathematics in understanding the natural world. The Enlightenment era brought a focus on reason, individualism, and skepticism towards traditional authorities. The Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism transformed society, and Darwin's theory of evolution challenged religious beliefs. Overall, the shift from the religious and moral foundations of the Middle Ages to the rational and scientific worldview of the modern era marked a significant transition in Western civilization.